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In Steinmetz Symposium

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Neuromodulation is the alteration of nerve activity through targeted delivery of a stimulus to specific neurological sites in the body. The development of non invasive and accurate methods for neuromodulation could result in improvements in the medical field. Such improvements would be in treating epileptic seizures and mental disorders, inducing pain relief, and understanding how the brain works. Promising results in neuromodulation have been achieved with Focused Ultrasound (FUS), which can deliver targeted stimuli to a localized region deep in tissue. The goal of this research project is to determine the optimal ultrasonic parameters (e.g. frequency, peak intensity, pulse duration) to produce a neuromodulation response in crayfish. We are currently using crayfish due to its simple nervous system and well-established dissection protocol. The long term goal is to optimize the parameters of FUS for neuromodulation for use in the medical field.

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DigitalDocument

In Steinmetz Symposium

Abstract

Humans seemingly effortlessly understand speech. As people listen, incoming auditory information is matched to an internal mental dictionary in order to successfully recognize words. This mental dictionary is called the lexicon. Research on the structure of the lexicon and how the lexicon is organized are core topics in the field of speech perception. Using an auditory version of the lexical decision task (ALDT, Luce & Pisoni, 1998), Goh, Suarez, Yap, and Hui Tan (2009) aimed to determine the structure of the lexicon. In the ALDT, participants classify speech utterances as words or non-words as quickly as possible. The speed at which one makes a lexical decision upon hearing aword reflects the extent to which theword is accessible in the lexicon. Goh et al. (2009) found in young adults that phonological neighborhood density (how many words sound similar to a given word) and word frequency (how often a word is used in its given language) can help predict how quickly a word is recognized. Specifically, they found that words that are more frequent in the English language were recognized faster than low frequency words. Their results also revealed an interaction where word frequency effects were larger for words from sparse rather than dense phonological neighborhoods. These results suggest that words are organized in our lexicon both according to their phonological similarity as well as how frequent they appear in a given language, and that these qualities interact. In the current study, we aim to replicate the findings of Goh et al (2009) and examine whether they would replicate on an online platform. Online data collection is increasingly used and is becoming the future of psychological studies because of its ease in accessibility and its ability to collect data from different parts of the country and world. Yet, studies involving auditory processes are not widely tested using online platforms because the experimenter cannot control the participants' auditory environment. Slote and Strand (2016) studied the ALDT online in order to see how well data collection of auditory stimuli in a word recognition task can perform online in comparison to in-lab data collection. In this study, they found a significant correlation in both accuracy and reaction time responses between in-lab and online participants. These results show that there is strong evidence that online data can be an accurate form of data collection for auditory stimuli in ALDT. Participants for the current experiment (ages 18-24) were recruited using Prolific (www.prolific.co). The participants completed an online version of ALDT, created using Gorilla (https://gorilla.sc/). The ALDT experiment used the same set of words as Goh et al (2009). The results of the experiment will be discussed in terms of the replicability of Goh et al's (2009) results and the extent to which online platforms, such as Gorilla, are beneficial for investigations of lexical structure.

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In Steinmetz Symposium

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Being bilingual is not only about speaking two languages, it is a quality that may lead to many advantages in terms of a person's cognition. Studies have shown that bilinguals present advantages in cognitive aspects such as creativity, problem-solving, and working memory tasks. Green (1998) proposed the Inhibitory Control Model (ICM) which states that when speaking a given language, bilinguals need to inhibit the other language they know but are not currently using. This model assumes that the same cognitive functions used to suppress the non-target language are the ones used to more broadly control attention and inhibition. Thus, it is possible that the reason why bilinguals present advantages on a cognitive level is because they are constantly exerting this inhibitory control process as they switch between languages which, in turn, reinforces their executive control abilities. The aim of the current study was to determine whether bilinguals outperform monolinguals in a language-based task that is related to inhibitory control: the false hearing task (Rogers, Jacoby, & Sommers, 2012). In the false hearing task, participants heard a clearly presented cue word followed by a target word presented in noise. The cue word could be related to the target (e.g., "ROW-BOAT"), related to a word that sounded like the target ("ROW-GOAT"), or totally unrelated to the target (e.g., "ROW-MASK") In order to hear the word that was actually said, listeners needed to inhibit the effect of the cue word. In the present study, the main focus was to examine bilingual vs monolingual performance on the false hearing task in order to assess bilinguals' presumed capacity of inhibiting irrelevant stimuli as predicted by the ICM. An online version of the false hearing experiment was devised in order to run the study.

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In Steinmetz Symposium

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The term executive function refers to a variety of mental processes that help people to execute daily tasks such as planning, organizing, self-regulation and attention. Self-efficacy is a person's perception of their own capabilities. Prior research has shown that worse executive function and lower self-efficacy are associated with learning differences, such as ADHD, and also with psychiatric diagnoses. The purpose of this study was to investigate the interaction among executive function, self-efficacy, and attitudes towards online learning in students withlearning differences or psychiatric diagnoses. Fifty-one Union College students (45 females) completed a survey which assessed executive function, self-efficacy, attitudes towards online learning and also whether they had ever been diagnosed with a learning difference or a psychiatric condition. Contrary to expectation there were no significant differences in attitudes towards online learning among students with a learning difference diagnosis, a psychiatric diagnosis or no diagnosis. As hypothesized, students with learning differences and students with a psychiatric diagnosis had significantly worse executive function than students with no diagnosis. Students with a learning difference also reported having significantly lower self-efficacy than students with no diagnosis. As predicted, students with more effective executive function also tended to have higher self-efficacy than students with worse executive function. These results have implications for alternative ways to support students who are struggling academically, such as helping them to improve their executive function skills. This study also provides further evidence of the connection between self-efficacy and executive function.

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In Steinmetz Symposium

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Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disability that is characterized by emotional, social, and behavioral challenges (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2020). One common characteristic of Autism Spectrum Disorder is impairment in executive function (EF) (Craig, Margari, Legrottaglie, Palumbi, Giambattista, & Margari, 2016). EF describes the governing of cognitive processes through control and regulation and is often associated with activity in the prefrontal cortex (Craig et al., 2016). One intervention that is being considered as an Evidence Based Practice (EBP) to help with characteristics of ASD, like executive dysfunction, is exercise (Dillion, Adams, Goudy, Bittner, & McNamara, 2017). Some studies have even looked at the synergistic effects of exercise and virtual gaming on cognition in youth diagnosed with ASD (Anderson-Hanley, Tureck, & Schneiderman, 2011). Anderson-Hanleyet. al (2011) found that use of an interactive physical physical and cognitive exercise system (iPACES) had a positive effect on improving some of the symptoms of ASD such as enhancing executive function and decreasing repetitive behaviors. In this study, we aimed to analyze the effectiveness of iPACES on a single youth with ASD over a three-month intervention. Problems due to the COVID-19 pandemic shifted our aim to look at the effects of multiple 20 min bouts of exergaming in a single case study. One youth was enrolled and successfully completed a series of experimental procedures, including the exercise induced feeling inventory (EIFI), the paper Stroop Task pre-intervention and an electronic Stroop Task pre- and post-intervention. This youthalso attempted newly developed versions of the iPACES game and provided feedback. The canal version of the game seemed to be a more interesting version according to the youth's report. Interestingly, the participant found that the bout using the canal version of game required more physical effort and felt more revitalizing according to the EIFI. Comparison of the Stroop A to Stroop C change scores for electronic Stroop Task as part of the iPACES v3 application and for the paper Stroop task revealed that the assessments were comparable. A review of the graphical display of the time series data for the electronic Stroop indicated that there was no increase in performance on this executive function task after exercise withiPACES.Because the electronic Stroop used was a new version that is still in development, it may not have been sufficiently challenging to the participant's cognitive ability (few errors were registered), lacking sensitive to any effects on executive functioning. Therefore, further development of the electronic Stroop may be required. Further research should also be conducted to see the effectiveness of exergaming over a longer period of time as there may be greater effects.

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In Steinmetz Symposium

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Research has demonstrated benefits of exercise on cognition, but it remains unclear whether adjusting other variables can maximize the benefit. This case study examined the effects of fasting and moderate to high-intensity physical exercise on cognitive function and biomarkers in an older adult with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). We hypothesized that (1) cognition would improve throughout the intervention, (2) salivary cortisol would increase after fasted moderate exercise and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and decrease after non-fasted moderate exercise, and (3) salivary alpha-amylase would increase after all exercise conditions. One adult participant completed all four study conditions: (1) fasting only, (2) non-fasting with moderate iPACES (neuro-exergaming) exercise, (3) fasting with moderate iPACES exercise, and (4) non-fasting with HIIT using iPACES. All study procedures were administered remotely due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The participant self-collected saliva samples using materials shipped to her residence from our lab. Cognition was assessed via the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and executive function via the "paper" Stroop test administered via videoconference pre/post intervention. Additionally, a digital Stroop test was administered pre/post each of the four serially assigned conditions. A time series display illustrated a slight improvement in the participant on the paper Stroop task from pre- to post-intervention with only slight improvement on the MoCA, possibly due to practice effects. However, we saw a marked improvement on the digital Stroop test following the fasted moderate exercise bout (the third condition in the series) despite its repeated administration. Biomarker analyses showed some increase in alpha-amylase for the non-fasted aerobic exercise condition and the HIIT condition. Pre/post for the fasting and fasted aerobic exercise conditions were similar. For cortisol, there was some decrease for the fasting condition and a marked decrease for the HIIT condition. Pre/post for both non-fasted and fasted aerobic exercise conditions were similar. The results partially supported our hypotheses and replicated previous findings from the literature, but further research with a sampling of additional participants is needed for statistical analyses to confirm our findings. This study tested the feasibility of our newly home-based neuro-exergaming intervention and a novel method of collecting and shipping biomarker samples for analysis. While we demonstrated the necessity of certain tools for our protocol, it had several limitations. These include difficulties with participant recruitment, the expensive and time-consuming shipping process, and faulty Bluetooth connections between fitness watch, Lenovo tablet, and cadence meter. Results also warrant further research to clarify possible moderating roles of other neuroprotective biomarkers (like BDNF or ketone bodies) as well as heart rate and diet regimen.

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In Steinmetz Symposium

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In this project we investigate the effects of energy consumption on time perception. Specifically we examined how the use of energy can affect a person's ability to accurately judge a given interval of time. We hypothesize that the more difficult the task is, and the more energy required to carry out that task, the more inaccurate people's judgements of time are going to be. We looked at two "forms" of energy consumption; 1) Physical energy, or the energy required to carry out a specific motor task, and 2) Mental energy, the energy required to maintain complex cognitive functions. In the current study, we asked participants to accurately monitor the passage of time while simultaneously performing physical and mental tasks. For the physical task we used a gentle but sustained isometric motor task (seated leg extension). For the cognitive task we used a phoneme monitoring task, where participants listened to words and pressed a button any time a probe phoneme was present. We examined how well participants were able to monitor the passage of time while participants engaged in these tasks. Results will be described in terms of how well the results confirm the Attentional Gate Theory, which says that when we monitor the flow of time, an "internal pacemaker" sends pulses to a "gate", which accumulates said pulses, and uses the total numberto interpret the temporal interval (Bangert, Kurby & Zacks, 2018). When someone's attention is diverted from the temporal interval, it is said that the gate shrinks, and that person is unable to interpret all the pulses and their ability to accurately judge the given time interval diminishes. We want to know if it's truly the action of paying attention that causes this misjudgment, or if it could be caused by the consumption of energy needed to carry out a task.

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In Steinmetz Symposium

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Background. Scientific illustrations and diagrams have been used for thousands of years to portray and relay information. As the different fields of science, technology, engineering and math progressed, diagrams evolved along with the scientific concepts they illustrated. Yet, there is no set standard for creating a scientific diagram or illustration. The field is continually evolving and growing, utilizing multiple dimensions including digital interfaces and virtual reality. Aims. To analyze the research on the use and effectiveness of different multimedia platforms for learning and to examine the effectiveness of learning outcomes using two dimensional vs three dimensional models. A specific focus was placed on level of detail and the role of color in medical diagrams. Another aim of this project was to develop novel medical illustrations and scientific diagrams based on these findings. Method. A literature search from January 1965 to January 2021 was conducted using the key words, scientific diagram, medical illustration, details, engagement, color, dimensions, models, learning, neuroscience, memory, among others. Databases and books from Union College's Schaffer library were utilized. Findings. There was some evidence that the different components that make up scientific diagrams may influence learning outcomes. For example, some colors (i.e. warm) may facilitate learning. The value in the level of detail included in a diagram seems dependent on multiple factors such as subject material, intended audience etc., . It has been suggested that certain artistic styles of illustrations better facilitate learning over others (i.e. cartoons better facilitate learning of medical information over anatomical and CT scan imaging), but the research conducted in the field was limited by inconsistent methodologies across studies. Conclusions. Scientific illustration has real world implications given its use in educating the medical professionals and leaders in STEM fields of tomorrow, yet research on the effectiveness of learning aids is limited. Further research is needed to identify how different sensory information might enhance learning, especially as more digital interface platforms, learning aids, and virtual reality techniques are being developed.

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In Steinmetz Symposium

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Roxanol is a common hospice pain medication that can be prescribed under different regimens with varying doses and schedules. In home care settings, caregivers are not required to record when medication is administered to patients; therefore, little is known about home hospice-prescribed Roxanol regimens and whether specific prescribing practices are associated with actual administration of medication during patients' final days of life. A retrospective review of patient care records of 227 deceased hospice patients who received routine home care between 2007 and 2020 was conducted. The overall amount of Roxanol administered to patients was examined by determining the doses prescribed as well as actual doses administered seven days prior to death and on the day of death. In addition, the extent to which Roxanol was administered based on prescribed regimen (i.e. scheduled, PRN, or combined scheduled plus PRN) and whether prescriptions were written with flexibility (i.e. varied doses, varied times, or varied doses and times) was also examined at both time points. Roxanol was prescribed to a large percentage (60.4%) of patients a week prior to death with even more (86.80%) on the day of death. The dose prescribed and the overall percentage of medication administered increased significantly during the last week of life; however, the overall quantity of Roxanol administered to patients remained relatively low seven days before death (23.40%) and on the day of death (30.68%). The most prevalent regimen prescribed shifted during the last week of life from PRN only (54.79%) to combined PRN/scheduled (57.14%) on the day of death. Nearly half of all prescriptions written contained some variability seven days before death (49.32%) and on the day of death (48.57%), and there was a greater likelihood that prescriptions were written with flexible dosing as opposed to varied time intervals. Administration rates were highest when prescriptions were more structured and did not vary by time or dose. The low overall Roxanol administration rates observed in this study suggest that certain regimens may not result in desired medication usage and that caregivers may need more clarity and guidance regarding when, how often, and how much Roxanol to administer.

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In Steinmetz Symposium

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Follicle stimulating hormone is produced by the pituitary gland, regulating the function of both the ovaries and the testes. The inability of this hormone to bind to its receptor can cause infertility in both men and women. Human follicle stimulating hormone receptor (hFSHR) is a GPCR (g protein-coupled receptor) that plays a crucial role in the development of sperm and egg cells in the gonads. The successful interaction of FSH with its receptor results in activation of several downstream intracellular pathways including the production of cAMP. Currently, hFSHR signaling is thought to rely on the protein caveolin. Caveolin is a protein found in the caveolae of the cell membrane. Caveolae, a type of lipid raft, support a diverse group of receptors that are needed at the cell membrane. The ability of hFSHR to bind to the lipid raft is believed to be accomplished through an interaction with the transmembrane domain IV of the hFSHR with the caveolin protein. An interruption in the caveolin binding motif of the hFSHR could have a large effect on the development of sperm and egg cells and subsequently cause infertility. In this study, we introduced wild type and mutant peptides corresponding to the 4th transmembrane domain of the hFSHR into cells expressing the receptor. We expect the wild type peptide to interfere with the interaction between caveolin and its binding motif. Additionally, we expect the mutant peptide to not interfere with this interaction. Currently, we are using a quantitative fluorescent assay to measure cAMP production in order to determine if the peptide is interfering with the activation of the hFSHR. I hypothesize that if caveolin is prevented from binding to hFSHR, the receptor will become less active. I anticipate a decrease in levels of cAMP in the cells that are treated with the wild-type (interfering) peptide. There should be no difference in the level of cAMP in cells treated with the mutant peptide and the cells with no peptide. Preliminary trials have suggested that there is a difference in levels of cAMP produced between the two peptides. In the future, we plan on using scrambled peptides to validate our current observations.

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In Steinmetz Symposium

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While the use of cigarettes is on the decline, e-cigarette products, which provide a nicotine high and a fruity flavor, are increasingly popular. "Vaping" is a common term among students for the use of such products. With the drastic increase in popularity, administrators are struggling to monitor the use of these easily-concealed products. My partner, Sunnah Yasin and I spent time researching this emerging epidemic under the supervision of Dr. Branden Eggan. Based on our knowledge of school policy changes in our region, we hypothesize local prevalence of use is higher than the national average and that education in our schools about the dangers of these products is lacking. Six Capital Region schools were surveyed to determine prevalence rates and trends. Preliminary data shows use in 9-12th graders at nearly 30% compared to the national average at 11.7% for 2017. Data was collected on health education, knowledge of risks and reasons for use; analysis is underway. We are hoping to assist schools in addressing this emerging epidemic.

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In Steinmetz Symposium

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Speech recognition is the process by which humans seemingly effortlessly decode physical vibrations in the air into meaningful linguistic information. We do this by storing this linguistic information, or words, into a mental dictionary called the lexicon. As people grow older, and experience age-related hearing loss, the effort associated with the recognition of words is thought to increase (e.g., Rabbit, 1991; Suprenant, 2007), features of the lexicon may change with age. Using an auditory version of the lexical decision task (ADLT, Luce & Pisoni, 1998), Goh, Suarez, Yap, and Hui Tan (2009) found in young adults that phonological neighborhood density (how many words sound akin to a given word) and word frequency (how often a word is used in its given language) contribute significantly and interact with how quickly a word is aurally recognized. Specifically, they found that words more frequent in the English language were recognized more quickly than low frequency words. Their results also revealed an interaction where word frequency effects were larger for words from sparse rather than dense phonological neighborhoods. In the current study we aimed to replicate the findings of Goh et al (2009) and examine whether they would extend to a sample of older adults experiencing hearing loss. Participants (ages 18-78) were split into two age groups: young and older adults. The participants completed the ADLT using the same set of words provided by Goh et al. (2008). Our results replicated effects of word frequency but not neighborhood density. Older adults were slower than young adults as expected (e.g., Salthouse, 1991), but no interactions between age and lexical variables persisted after converting reaction times to z-scores (Faust, Balota, Spieler, & Ferraro, 1999). Distributional analyses that estimated ex-Gaussian parameters at the individual subject level revealed a similar pattern. We hold these results suggest a relative preservation of the structure of the lexicon in older adults, even in the face of hearing loss, but also point to the potential fragility of neighborhood density effects on ALDT.

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In Steinmetz Symposium

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Depression is frequently experienced at the end of life and can increase pain and suffering. Antidepressants can alleviate depression among the terminally ill; however, many patients have difficulty swallowing oral tablets as death approaches and may be at risk for antidepressant discontinuation syndrome (ADS). This study retrospectively examined antidepressant prescription patterns among 227 hospice patients in a residential care home to determine the extent to which patients were prescribed antidepressants during their final month of life and at what time in the dying process patients may have stopped taking their medication. Results revealed that 67 (30%) of the hospice patients at the care home were prescribed one or more antidepressants. The vast majority (96.1%) of patients did not consume their prescribed antidepressant on their day of death. For those who died at the home, most (62.7%) did not receive their medication during their last 3 days whereas about a quarter of patients (23.6%) stopped receiving their medication 4-7 days prior to their death and a smaller percentage (13.9%) went without medication from 8-34 days prior to death. Records revealed that antidepressants were not consumed during patients' final days for a variety of reasons including difficulty swallowing, minimal consciousness, confusion, nausea, and patient refusal. These results suggest that hospice patients may be at risk for ADS, a factor that could add to suffering during patients' final days. Alternative routes of administering antidepressants at the end of life may be helpful in ensuring that patients are not suffering unnecessarily while they are dying.

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In Steinmetz Symposium

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Objective: Researchers are focusing on behavioral interventions to counteract the cognitive decline associated with dementia. The interactive and Physical Cognitive Exercise System (iPACES v2.75) study at Union College is a single-bout multimodal intervention, consisting of pedaling an under-desk elliptical which controls progress while playing a video game, for patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Our investigation focuses on the neurobiological mechanisms of cognitive decline by looking at the correlation between changes in biological markers and improvements in cognitive function. Participants and Methods: 27 older adults were recruited from multiple sites in NY and MA. Participants pedaled an under desk elliptical and used an iPad for iPACES, in which they traveled along a virtual bike path and completing errands. Two domains of cognitive function: executive function and verbal memory, were measured pre and post exercise with the paper and electronic Stroop (A:C ratio and CCII metric of BrainBaseline) and ADAS-COG. Salivary samples to analyze biomarker changes were taken before and after the exercise. The samples were assayed using the Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) for IGF-1, alpha-amylase, and cortisol. Paired t-tests were used to evaluate pre to post changes in IGF-1, Alpha-Amylase, cortisol, Stroop, and ADAS-Cog. Results: Significant improvements in the overall sample were noted on the ADAS-Cog (p = .05), Stroop CCII (p = .01) and alpha amylase (p = .01). There was a significantly greater improvement among MCI on the Stroop CCII (p = .04) and alpha amylase (p = .04). Conclusions: Our results support the idea that alpha-amylase is an effective biomarker for multi-modal interventions for patients with MCI. Since there was a significant improvement in the increase in alpha-amylase, it shows that there was an effective physiological response to the physical exercise that could be part of the broader neurobiological mechanisms leading to cognitive improvements. Further investigation is needed into single-bout interventions to understand how to maximize the effectiveness of the exercise to spur the neurobiological mechanism. Our study supports the notion that the combined physical and mental exercise benefits cognition, and should be the basis of more interventions and research for patients at risk for dementia. Authors: Kartik Nath, Professor Cay Anderson-Hanley

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In Honors Theses

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Pseudoarithmetic has previously been used to investigate new skill acquisition. The current research extends learning research with old and young adults to young athletes and musicians using a pseudoarithmetic task. The group with the combination of attributes (i.e., athletic musicians) was hypothesized to show the fastest learning. Alphabet arithmetic was used to assess reaction time based learning curves. No differences among groups were found in the participants’ slopes and y-intercepts from the log-log learning curves or block by block accuracy. Nevertheless, post-hoc analyses revealed differences among type of athletic activity (collapsed across musician status), such that non-endurance athletes learned faster than endurance athletes.

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In Honors Theses

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In the growing age of neuroscience, we are rapidly churning out answers to questions about the mind and mental illness that have always evaded us. While increased neurological understanding is valuable to mental illness, our current understanding of mental illness comes with historical baggage that has negatively shaped society's beliefs connecting females to illness. Our definitions of mental illness and its association with women came out of a history of stigmatization against women, disease, and Otherness. This has manifested into the pathologization of female experience as mental illness. The onset of new brain science had a similar agenda to make female inferiority scientifically true, and neuroscience thus made room for neurosexism, the sexist assumption that all differences perceived between men and women are a direct result of neurological difference. While sex differences do exist in male and female brains, it is the neurological aspects along with social constructs of gender imbalance that account for these differences in mental illness between men and women today. An experiment was conducted on perceptions and reactions towards those with mental illness and found that the gender of the individual with mental illness did impact responses, highlighting gender discrepancies in our understanding of mental illness and further supporting that neurological and social factors together sustain difference. Increased understanding of the female to illness connection can help us reduce the pathologization of female experience, improve our current approach to neurological research, and reshape the conversations around sex and gender differences in mental illness.

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